Positive and Negative Reinforcements

Positive and Negative Reinforcement Positive Reinforcement Positive and Negative Reinforcement What are Positive Reinforcement and Negative Reinforcemens? Positive and negative reinforcement are used in most of the three theories. Negative reinforcement is used in behaviorism, where it involves the removal of an unpleasant stimulus when a desired behavior occurs. Positive Reinforcement is a technique used to increase desired behavior and is used in operant conditioning.Positive reinforcement is offering of desirable effects or consequences for a behavior with the intention of increasing desired behavior. Positive and Negative reinforcement are used or used in the theories of learning whether it is innate or learned behavior (King 2010). Positive Reinforcement and Skinners experiment Skinner experimented using positive reinforcement, with a rat and came to the conclusion that with a stimulus or positive reinforcement a rat can learn to receive food by pressing a bar. With Skinners exp eriments with the rat he discovered law of effect.Skinners approach to operant conditioning involved the â€Å"Law of Effect† stating that behavior followed by positive outcomes is strengthened and that behaviors followed by negative outcomes are weakened. This means that positive outcomes for behaviors are strengthening to an individual and negative outcomes weaken the behavior of the individual, therefore receiving a positive reinforcement or reward will increase the likelihood of the behavior occurring (King, 2010). Shaping Shaping is one of the first steps of operant conditioning, which is rewarding approximations of a desired behavior.An example the book gives is a rat can be shaped or trained to press a bar to eat. It is not likely for the rat to receive food when being placed in the â€Å"Skinner box†. The experimenter began to give the rat food pellets when the rat is close to the bar. The rat begins to gain the reward and continues to press the bar, which is P ositive reinforcement. Later the experimenter only rewards the rat with a pellet when rat is 2inches from the bar. After rewarding for being within 2inches the rat will have to touch the bar for reward, leading to the rat, pressing he bar and receiving food. When the rat presses bar that’s where reinforcement comes in, which is the process by which a rewarding stimulus or event following a particular behavior increases the probability that the behavior will happen again, the rat now sees that if it presses the bar it receives food, therefore the rat continues to press the bar to receive food. The behavior continues to happen due to the stimulus of food, which is reinforcement (King, 2010). Positive and Negative Reinforcement There is positive and negative reinforcement within operant conditioning.Positive reinforcement is getting a positive result from the stimulus; in turn a negative reinforcement is a behavior of doing something due to a negative stimulus. There are two typ es of reinforcement primary and secondary reinforcement. Primary reinforcement is innate which is not learned or conditioned Secondary reinforcement (King, 2010). Generalization, Discrimination, and Extinction The next 3 key concept of classical conditioning is generalization, discrimination, and extinction. First is generalization which is performing a positive reinforced behavior in a different situation.An example of generalization is having three classes and deciding to study for one of the classes every night. Eventually an individual will begin to study every night in all three of their classes. The second discrimination is responding appropriately to stimuli that signal that a behavior will or will not be reinforced. The book gives an example of a restaurant that gives student discounts if the student shows there student identification card and how if someone who is not a student shows their identification card might get a puzzled look.The last is extinction, which is a decre ase in the frequency of a behavior when the behavior is no longer reinforced. Extinction is without the same stimuli and the reinforcement ceases to exist (King, 2010). Schedules of Positive and Negative Reinforcement The patterns that determine when a behavior will be reinforced positively or negatively are schedules of reinforcement, which can be negative and positive reinforcement. The four different types of schedules are; variable interval, fixed interval, variable ratio, and fixed ratio. Variable-interval is a timetable where behavior is reinforced after a certain amount of time has went by.A fixed interval applies to procrastination which is when the first behavior is reinforced after a fixed amount of time has passed. An example of fixed interval is a kindergartener that does not get a bad check mark all week receives candy at the end of the week. A fixed ratio reinforces a behavior after a set number of behaviors. Fixed ratio can be applied to the lottery, because you never know when you will win. The last is variable ratio that is when behaviors are rewarded an average number of times but on an unpredictable basis (King, 2010). Punishment Punishment is a consequence that decreases the likelihood that a behavior will occur.Operant Conditioning consists of two types of punishment positive and negative. Positive punishment is presentation of an unpleasant stimulus following a given behavior in order to decrease the frequency of that behavior. Yelling at your child until they clean their room would be an example of positive punishment, because if they clean their room the yelling will stop. Negative punishment is the opposite the removal of a positive stimulus following a given behavior in order to decrease the frequency of that behavior. Negative reinforcement can be telling your child if you don’t clean your room I will be taking your phone away.You will be removing the cell phone if they don’t clean their room, therefore it is more likel y for that child to clean their room. Both positive and negative reinforcement are used in punishment (King, 2010). Positive, Negative Reinforcement, and Timing Whether positive reinforcement or negative reinforcement timing is an important aspect in reinforcement and punishment. Immediate reinforcement is better than delayed reinforcement because delayed reinforcement means that an individual has to wait for their reward (reinforcement) and for young children that can be hard to comprehend.Immediate punishment is more effective with young children because if you delay their punishment the child is more likely to act that behavior again. The last type is immediate with delayed reinforcement and punishment. The book Experience Psychology gives an example of the three; â€Å"an individual putting off going to the dentist to avoid a punisher, such as pain, but waiting could contribute to greater pain later. Applied behavior analysis is applying operant conditioning to change human beh avior. This analysis looks for rewards that are creating bad behavior and enhances rewards to gain good behavior. King, 2010). † Three Theories Together Behaviorism, operant conditioning, and classical conditioning are different theories on how individuals learn and use positive or negative reinforcement. Behaviorism focuses on observable behavior solely, uses negative reinforcement and that is what makes it different from the other theories. Classical conditioning has two stimuli; (King, 2010) an example of classical conditioning is a child smelling a beautiful flower and is stung by a bee within the flower.Classical conditioning uses negative reinforcement, because it teaches the child that that flower caused the pain and they are more likely not to touch the flower again. The child associates the pain with the flower and is now fearful of the flower. Each theory has good and bad points, but my thought is behavior is learned with rewards, therefore human behavior is better w ith some sort of reward such as positive or negative (reinforcement) (King, 2010). Conclusion Positive and Negative Reinforcement Positive and negative reinforcement are used in behaviorism, classical conditioning, and operant conditioning.Many believe one works better than the other, but it depends on the situation whether negative or positive reinforcement will be used. I believe that Positive reinforcement is the best, because getting a reward makes an individual more likely to increase the desired behavior. Negative reinforcement to me can be stressful to an individual, because if they don’t do what they are supposed to do something could be taken from them (King, 2010). References King, L. (2010) Experience psychology: McGraw-Hill, Avenue of Americas. New York, NY 10020. (p. 167-177).

A University Guide for the 21st Century Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words - 1

A University Guide for the 21st Century - Essay Example Moreover, what are the key messages that can be ascertained from a rigorous critique of the very methodology of the STUG ? IT WILL BE DEMONSTRATED THAT A CRITICAL APPRAISAL OF THE STUG YIELDS A TWO-FOLD IMPROVEMENT FOR DURHAM UNIVERSITY: ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT AND INCREASED DIVERSITY BY ALL RELEVENT INDICATORS. SCOPE & BREADTH OF DATA PRESENTED: Established in 1993 and both funded and supported by universities across the UK [APPENDIX: D] the Higher Education Statistics Agency houses a significant body of data pertaining to university demographics – indeed, HESA tracks performance indicators, finance, enrollment, student achievement at all levels, faculty demographics, and a wide range of other very useful information [see: APPENDIX: B-C; E - F]. For the STUG, the HESA is the source for a number of their key indicators in regard to how they compare one university in the UK against the next [APPENDIX C]. The following analysis is dependent upon both the various university guides such as the STUG, the Guardian annual survey and the Complete University Guide, but also the annual key indicators that are accumulated and presented at HESA. The details of the analysis will be comparative as far as including both the newspaper distillation of the HESA information ( and beyond the HESA too), with particular attention paid to the STUG, but also the HESA in its raw and more expansive form. METHODOLOGY: There is both qualitative and quantitative methods employed in this analysis. First, the data stated in the previous section will be compared in terms of key performance indicators. In numerical or quantitative terms, significant improvements, changes or declines will be noted and presented. Particular focus will be paid to the indicators that are Durham specific, however, it is difficult to isolate Durham University when considering notable

Assignment Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 64

Assignment - Essay Example These rights normally depend on the reason for which this debt came about as well as the terms that have been agreed upon between the two parties to the debt (Twomey & Jennings, 2010). Their rights tend to also deal with the rights of creditors against other creditors. These legislations determine which of several creditors have the right to a particular debtor’s property in cases whereby more than one creditor lays a claim on a given debtor’s property. These creditors may be divided those who perfected their own interest by establishing a suitable public record of the said debt and any other property that is claimed as collateral for this debt and also by if the given debt came to be as a purchase money security interest (Twomey & Jennings, 2010). Creditors may request a court of law to set aside a fraudulent conveyance that is designed to put the property owned by the debtors out of the creditors’ reach. In Nebraska, property or money of a limited liability company cannot be seized by creditors in order to pay off the personal liabilities or debts of the owners of the limited liability company (Gless, 2008). If Adam opts to change his company to a limited liability company, Benhur as well as other creditors to the business will have to be aware of these rights and limitations in case the business acquires this legal status. However, there are other means through which creditors may use to go after the company while trying to recover the debts personally owed by the owner of the business (Gless, 2008). The state of Nebraska allows personal creditors of a LLC owner to get a charging order that is drawn against the membership interest of the owner. This is an order that is given by a court of law directing the business manager to authorize payment to the business owner’s personal creditor any profits or income that would otherwise have been distributed to the debtor-member. It should however be remembered that creditors

Tesco Management Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 4750 words

Tesco Management - Case Study Example The company is a new entrant in the American market and has only about 53 stores all of them located in USA. Any organization irrespective of size or motive (profit or not-for-profit), whether it is publicly owned or not will be affected by many factors and influences. These might be external and internal. This paper is divided into two parts and the first one will analyse the external and internal influences on TESCO. The second part of the paper will discuss the topic of globalization with reference to the above mentioned company. In the process it will take the following three issues into consideration. It will analyse how globalisation influences policies and decision making in TESCO. It will then critically evaluate the effectiveness of the organisation's response to those issues and finally provide some areas for improvement in the response of the organisation. The paper will begin with a short history and development of the company. As with most organisations TESCO started off as a single grocery stall in 1919. The shop was started by Jack Cohen who named the shop TESCO in 1924. The inspiration behind the name was a tea supplier called T E Stockwell. Cohen used the T E and S, the first three letters of the name and CO to form the word. The company began to grow rapidly and soon had a headquarters in North London in the year 1932 and also became a private limited company in the same year. The company went public in the year 1947. Expansion continued mainly though acquisitions of other stores. The company also began building superstores and also entered the retail petrol sale in UK. The current name of TESCO Plc was taken in 1983. The company's first overseas expansion was in 1995 to Hungary. The Company entered the Asian market two years later. Its internet portal and shopping facility TESCO.com is launched in 2000. TESCO entered the highly competitive market in the year 2007 only. Internal influences: The internal factors are those which can be controlled to a large extent by the company management and staff. Internal influences include, the management strategy, the human resources of the company, the marketing strategy, the level of technology, the organisational culture etc. Management strategy: The overall strategy formulated and practiced by the management will have a great influence on the company. If the policies are not properly taken, it will have a negative influence and correct ones will have a positive influence. It is also said that implementation of the strategy is more important than the strategy itself. "A study of 275 portfolio managers reported that the ability to execute strategy was more important than the quality of the strategy itself." (Kaplan and Norton 2001, p.1). The management strategy of TESCO can be easily understood and reviewed from what the company calls its steering wheel. The basic vision of the company with regard to customer service is the words 'every little helps' that appears in most of the company's pages. Their strategy is classified into five sections namely customer, community, operations, people and finance. Customer strategy includes great service by the staff, eliminating the need for queuing, providing a wide variety of goods that customers can get his needs under one roof, offer the lowest possible prices and obtain lifelong customer

Gender Revolution in the Latin America Research Paper - 1

Gender Revolution in the Latin America - Research Paper Example Preservation of status quo in Latin politics and economic expansion provided social justice amidst the political crisis. Few revolutions contributed to significant political changes in the 20th century owing to major alterations in economic and social matters. Â  Revolution in the Latin America States arose subsequently to two major occasions which include the Mexican Revolution and the World War I. Despite other nations maintaining the status quo through this major events, the Great War caused the realignment of economies of nations and disrupted the economies of the region. Prior to the war, Europe exported Latin American agrarian revolution products and, as a result, demand for the products kept rising. After the World Wars, the Latin American economy slowed and unending political unrest made a better deal of the region. Heavy and uncontrolled immigration led to alarming rates of population growth. As a result, the urban regions experienced high rates of congestion and therefore increased social problems. As If that did not serve to destabilize the countries, the region arose to the emergence of a newer and dominant superpower, the United States. Â  Unrelenting economic problems in Latin America brought down military governments to the control of the civilians. The resultant human torture and massacres and political killings in the region grabbed the international attention which in turn reinforced the concept of natural law in human rights. However, differences in political opinions and cultural opinions made the enforcement of the law are quite hard due to the different interpretation of components of human rights. Changes in the Latin America society took place gradually over the 20th century. The changes took place because ethnicity, economic class, and gender remain influential. Â  The status of women and their rights changed over time in three phases in the fight for political power.

What Caused the 1973 Arab-Israeli War Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

What Caused the 1973 Arab-Israeli War - Essay Example The war also christened the Yom Kippur war as it was started on the eve of the day of prayers and fasting. (Yom Kippur). Yom Kippur is a holy day according to the Jewish religion when special prayers are conducted in the presence of fasting. Israel, with Golda Meir as the prime minister was attacked by Egypt that was led by Anwar Sadat. This war was joined by other Arab nations fighting with the Egyptians and included the Syrians, Lebanon and Kuwait (Aruri, 1975). In October 1973, Egypt made real its threats and attacked the Israeli troops within the Suez Canal and beyond. The Syrians attacking the west bank and other regions bordering it followed this. With these surprise attacks, one the longest Middle East wars began, recording one of the highest fatalities ever recorded. This war attracted the interest of other superpowers like the United States and the Soviet Union, further escalating its course and impacts. The United States, though declining to participate actively in the war, sent military support and intelligence to Israel. The Soviet Union reacted by sending its troops and military support to both Egypt and Syria, a factor which prolonged the duration of the war (Aruri, 1975). In this paper, the Yom Kippur war of 1973 will be evaluated to provide an empirical analysis of the events that occurred prior to the war. The sole purpose of this evaluation is to highlight descriptively the events that led to the beginning and progression of the war. The paper will thus analyze each cause into detail providing practical examples, actions and reactions and how each eventually propagated the war. Conflicts over control of Palestine Palestine, an Arab nation that borders Israel and other Arab nation was created after the Palestine liberation organization movement in 1967. This movement created an Arabic peninsula that was meant to house the Arabic Palestine, a move that was resisted by Israel. Israel in the first place was created after the ratification of the Un ited Nations agreement in 1945, thus creating a nation in areas that was inhabited by other Arabs (Bickerton, 2009). Palestine was therefore a major cause of the Arabic-Israel war of 1973 as the countries were fighting to regain control of Palestine from Israel. Israel gained control of Palestine following the six-day war of 1967 in which he fought his neighbouring Arabic nations to gain control over Palestine. Israel also captured the areas of the Golan Heights that was initially controlled by Syria before the 1967 war (Daigle, 2012). Apart from capturing these areas, Israel also captured the areas of the west bank and east Jerusalem that was initially administered by Jordan. Following the war and Israel control of the prime areas under the control of the Arabic nations, tension grew among the countries and war was visibly inevitable. In the same year, united nation made a resolution in an attempt to quell the rising tension between the Arabian countries and Israel to avoid the pos sibility of war. In the resolution, the united nation asked Israel to withdraw from the areas she had seized such as the Gaza strip, the Golan area, the west bank and other areas controlled by Jordon (Daigle, 2012). In exchange for this action, the Arabic nations were to accept and recognize the independence of Israel and to restrain from infringing into its territorial boundaries in a manner that could provoke conflict. These resolutions by the United Nations were ignored by both sides of the divide and cross border attacks continued further straining the more volatile relations (Aruri, 1975). The Israeli-Palestine conflict

The Libor Scandal Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

The Libor Scandal - Assignment Example Its use affects the pricing of loans, mortgages and other financial products thus directly affecting the people’s lives. This paper will therefore attempt to examine the process and the purpose as well, of how commercial banks set and determine the LIBOR rates. It will further explore the role of LIBOR in the commercial sector, and finally consider the impact of this rate on businesses and consumers. It is paramount to understand the meaning of the word LIBOR. In definition, LIBOR refers to the London Interbank Offered Rate. It is also referred to as ICE LIBOR. It can also be understood as a rate used by contributor banks in the event that one bank wants to borrow funds or inter-bank deposits, from another fellow member bank. Contributor banks refer to banks, which are involved in the setting and fixing of LIBORS. They include the Deutsche bank, Bank of America, Royal Bank of Canada, and the Royal Bank of Scotland. The LIBOR is thus a benchmark rate that some commercial banks in the world use to determine the rate at which they will lend short-term deposits to each other. It can be equated to the federal funds rate (Gumbo, 2011:23). The LIBOR, whose administration is under the ICE Benchmark Administration, is usually based on the five major currencies of the world. These are the United States dollar, the Euro, the sterling pound, the Japanese Yen, and the Swiss Franc. In order to understand well the process and why banks set their LIBOR rates, it is crucial that we briefly look at the circumstances that led to the formation of this rate. The history of LIBOR is traced back to the year 1984 although its first application in the financial and money markets was not until the year 1986 (Twomey, 2011:52). In the 1984, there was an increased growth in business using financial market instruments. More and more banks were increasingly using